The Shadows that Blind Us

4edges [CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], from Wikimedia Commons

"Fascism is cured by reading and racism is cured by traveling."

- Miguel de Unamuno

In his classic The Republic, Plato tells of a group of people, who have spent their whole life in a cave, bound in place so that the only thing they could see is the shadows playing across the wall as those free to move pass between them and the fire behind them.  To these unfortunate prisoners, the shadows are reality.  Only when they are released and can turn around do they begin to understand what is indeed real.  Their discoveries only grow as they leave the cave and experience the outside world.  Plato’s Allegory of the Cave has become a staple of Western philosophy and its truths are more valid today than ever before.

As a fluent Russian speaker and a person who has spent a substantial amount of time there, I am often asked Russia and its leader Vladimir Putin.  Most people expect me to repeat what they hear on the news or to defend Putin.  The problem is, while the human mind wants a black or white answer, most often the truth is somewhere in between. 

If you look at the cave wall from the average Russian’s perspective, things look very different than from an American perspective.  NATO is not an alliance opposing oppression and championing human rights, but a coalition organized to oppose Russia and its way of life. To many Russians, NATO has purposely isolated Russia and refused to welcome it into its fold.  To Russia, NATO is a force marching ever closer to its borders, devouring former allies and even former Russian territories.  It is an existential threat to the Russian values and Vladimir Putin is the only one capable opposing it.  

To many Russians, Vladimir Putin is the man who pulled the country from the brink of economic and social collapse in the late 1990s and the only one keeping it from slipping back. He is the only one able to counter Western hegemony and restore Russian pride on the global stage.

The world we see on our cave wall largely depends on our perspective.  This is determined by where we live, whom we associate with, and where we get our information.  While the human psyche tends to cling to these perspectives throughout our lives, we can only change them for a more accurate understanding of our world if we have access to information that brings these views into contrast with others.

Unfortunately, our world is moving away from liberating people from the bands that tie them to their convictions and is, in fact, binding them ever more tightly to them.  The echo chamber of our mass media and the way we receive it more frequently feeds our biases than challenges them. 

We have more sources of information now than ever in human history.  The Internet, 24-hour news channels, social media, and instantaneous communication allow us to find information on virtually any topic at the push of a button. 

However, with this plethora of information comes the need to separate the important from the superfluous. Our minds naturally seek those things that we know and are comfortable with and avoid those that challenge our beliefs and debase the perceived stability of our world.  Information providers understand this and, in the quest to attract readers, increase the click-through, and garner ever greater advertising revenues, they have developed specialized systems to give us the stability our minds crave.

News outlets today cater to this need and provide a news resource for every view.  Fox or Breitbart for the conservative and Huffington Post or MSNBC for the liberal.  The news these outlets produce is no longer news, but political commentary.  They no longer provide us with the facts and allow us to put them into the context of our own understanding, but the news comes with a ready-made context.  We are told what it means and how to think about it.  Even the algorithms in our search engines look at what we most often seek and provide us with more of the same.  It is no wonder our society is becoming more and more polarized every day.

This polarization has migrated from our own personal cave wall to our collective walls. 

We wonder why our governmental institutions are so dysfunctional.  Why our elected officials can seem to get nothing done other than blame each other for the mess they all have created.  It is because we choose the candidates that make us feel good about the shadow-play before us.  They are a reflection of our own opinions and views. 

“People bind themselves into political teams that share moral narratives. Once they accept a particular narrative, they become blind to alternative moral worlds.”

― Jonathan Haidt

To keep our attention on the shadow play they have created for us, they demonize anyone that offers an alternative view.  Our society no longer cherishes and nurtures diversity, but tells us accommodation is a weakness, a sellout of the “defenders of truth.”

This is tearing our society apart.

The greatest leaps forward in American history have been brought about by cooperation, accommodation, and compromise – by a willingness to listen to alternate views and admit that certain institutions must remain while others must change.  Government for the people, of the people, and by the people and a free market economy are as important as ever, while practices like slavery, Jim Crow, religious discrimination, and gender inequality in any form must be rooted out of our society.  This process continues today. 

While the shadows playing across our cave walls may seem comforting, we must confront them for what they are, as distortions of reality.  We must do all we can to break out of our echo chamber cave, to expose ourselves to alternative ideas, to accept that others may see things from a different perspective and that this is what enriches our society. 

For example, the constant influx and integration of wave after wave of immigrants has played a significant role in making America an economic and cultural force in the world.  While commonsense legal controls are important, shutting the door can only lead to cultural stagnation and decline.

America was indebted to immigration for her settlement and prosperity. That part of America which had encouraged them most had advanced most rapidly in population, agriculture and the arts. 

- James Madison

When we buy into the extreme narratives that immigrants are a threat or that all who want a secure border are racist, we push the possibility that we can find a compassionate and secure solution ever farther away.  Dialog and a willingness to consider all views is the only way forward.

As we emerge our the cave, we must accept that not everyone will see things as we do, and this is not only all right but essential.

Keep the Home Fires Burning Where They Should Be – Love-Less Ash Vacs and Fireplace Safety

Tis the season! As the temperatures drop and your friendly neighborhood stores start filling their shelves with toys and gigantic blow-up snow globes, there is nothing like sitting in front of a cheery fire on a cold winter evening, snuggled in your favorite blanket, cradling a steaming mug of your favorite hot drink as your car-sized snow globe hums peacefully in the front yard. However, few of us envy the job of cleaning the fireplace the next morning. (Click here to continue reading)

Can a Good Vacuum Save Your Life?

My latest article, which is published on the Dustless Technologies website.

Silicosis is a serious respiratory disease and serious risk for many in the construction and industrial occupations. Sometimes referred to as Stone Mason’s Disease due to its prevalence for centuries among those who built the great cathedrals of Europe, silicosis is caused by prolonged exposure to silica dust, a common component in concrete, stone, ceramics, and other industrial materials. Silica is one of the most common minerals on earth and products containing it are the core of modern industry.

To protect exposed workers, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) adopted a new Silica Rule in 2016. This rule sets the “permissible exposure levels” (PEL) for silica exposure on the job site...

To continue reading, click here.

The Self-Licking Ice Cream Cone Built Elephant - Information Flow and Organizational Success

"There is no shame in not knowing; the shame lies in not finding out."

Russian Proverb

You may have heard of the Indian parable immortalized in John Godfrey Saxe’s poem of the group of blind men, who come upon an elephant. Each tries to create an accurate concept of what they have found based upon their own perspective. “It’s a tree!” “It’s a wall!” “It’s a snake!” All are correct, but none of them in entirety. In order to get the true picture, they need an effective exchange of information.

Similarly, in our professional world, the critical pieces of vital information are spread among various parts of the organization, and while each has an important contribution to make to the entire operation, until they get out of their silo and integrate their piece of the puzzle with the other pieces of information spread throughout the organization, we have another analogy – the self-licking ice cream cone.

When organizational information is kept in silos and the work of the various departments is based primarily on their own information without outside input, we have the proverbial self-licking ice cream cone. This is seen when R&D builds something because the engineers think it is a great idea without asking production what it would cost to produce or marketing and sales if there is anyone out there who would actually buy it at that cost. It is not that it cannot be mass-produced, or that there is no market for it, it is that the necessary stakeholders were not brought into the process at an early enough stage to ensure the self-licking ice cream cone does not build an elephant that looks more like a tree than an elephant.

I learned early in my project and operations management career that I cannot possibly know everything. In my first full-time role as a project manager, despite my lack of formal IT training, I was assigned several IT-intensive projects. Faced with this knowledge gap, I learned the value of using experts to fill in where I was lacking. I brought the necessary subject matter experts onto my team.

Much later, while interviewing an executive at a major regional bank, this concept was brought back to me as he explained his resistance to corporate pressure to restructure his division. He explained that he had built the organization with his own strengths and weaknesses in mind. He had brought in people to shore up the organization where he was weak. 

However, this requires a high degree of understanding of oneself and of others.

I explain in my article “The Blind Leading the Blind – Emotional Intelligence and the Unaware Leader” that the first step to any kind of leadership is self-awareness, followed closely by awareness of others. This is true whether you lead major bank division or a project team. You must understand your tasks, your and your people’s strengths and weaknesses and then build your teams accordingly.

Having a well-rounded team provides the expertise and points of view to find the most effective solutions. It also helps ensure all stakeholders have input into the project and are apprised of progress on aspects of the project that are of interest to them and that are aware of changes coming their way.

However, the benefits of effective cross-functional communication and input go beyond the project itself into implementation and adoption. Unfortunately, this is where many initiatives fail.

Including others in the entire process eases resistance to change by ensuring all have real input and buy-in to the process and a stake in the success of the project. Having changes thrust upon you, which you are not ready for and had no input into elicits resistance.

On the other hand, having production, marketing, sales, and distribution represented on the team result in processes and products, which have integrated the needs of all from the beginning.  This will help integrate the new capabilities into current processes and minimizes painful and expensive adjustments that often accompany poorly coordinated hand-offs between functions. 

This means production has the processes in place when R&D turns the product over to them, and marketing and sales have ready customer demand and distribution channels ready when the product begins rolling out the doors.

In today’s world dominated by agile product development resulting in a constant flow of new iPhones, software, and tools, those who can best gauge the voice of the customer, get the best product to market, in the shortest time, and at the lowest cost reap the benefits of being the first mover.

Those who cannot mobilize their organizational assets effectively to stay ahead of the competition go the way of companies like Borders, Blockbuster, and Palm Inc., maker of the Palm Pilot. All of which were overtaken by change they refused to acknowledge just as each blind man refused to acknowledge the elephant was anything more than a wall, a tree, a rope, a snake, and a spear. Mobilizing the power of organizational knowledge can help us see clearly the full picture and act on the resulting clarity.

Going Far Together – The Value of Cultural Guides in Cross-Cultural Communication

“If you want to go fast, go alone. If you want to go far, go together.” 

African Proverb

The anecdote goes, that many years ago, a plane full of gold went down in the middle of Siberia. When the KGB had finally located the wreckage, they were shocked to find that the gold was gone. After careful examination, they discovered tracks in the snow leading through the forest to an indigenous hunter’s cabin. The hunter answered their authoritative knocks, but to their dismay, they found he spoke no Russian. Leaving the man under guard, they located an interpreter and began the interrogation.

“Where is the gold?” they demand. The interpreter conveys their question and the peasant claims ignorance.

The agents pressed further, “We followed your tracks from the crash site to your cabin. We know you have the gold. Where is it?” The interpreter repeats the question in the hunter’s own tongue.

The man again feigns ignorance. The agents realize more persuasive measures are required. One pulls out his weapon and points it at the hunter’s head.

“If you don’t tell us where the gold is, your days are over!”

The hunter breaks. “I buried it under the tree behind my cabin! Please don’t shoot me!” he pleads desparately.

The interpreter, without hesitation says, “Go ahead and shoot, I’m not going to tell you a thing!”

Interpreters are often indispensable when working in a global environment. The skill, trustworthiness, and professionalism of your interpreter can make or break your negotiations. You rely on them to keep you abreast of all that transpires during your meetings with your foreign counterparts. In fact, they may be the only one in the room that gets the whole picture.

However, finding someone that can take your ideas in language A and convey them to your partner in language B is only the beginning. A truly effective interpreter understands the target culture at a much deeper level. As they are well versed in the history, literature, and etiquette of the culture, they are also able to help you navigate the cultural and social intricacies of these cross-cultural interactions. In other words, they must be more than an interpreter. They must be a cultural guide.

Another story illustrates their value:

After months of correspondence, an American company has finally landed a meeting with a key Korean retail distributer. This company has the best distribution chain in the country and ties to other distributers throughout East Asia. They enter the conference room, shake hands, and exchange business cards. The host takes the American leader’s card in both hands, looks at it, carefully and thanks them by name. The American looks at the Korean’s card briefly, memorizes his name and title, and puts it in his pocket. The Korean host’s demeanor cools noticeably, but since he continues discussions, the Americans think nothing of it, but the deal just doesn’t make progress. They don’t understand what happened.

Unfortunately, no one had explained the personal value Asian cultures place on a business card. It is considered an extension of the person and a key component of personal dignity. The card is , a part of what is known as “face.” As such, a business card should be given the same respect that is due the person it belongs to. By not giving the card proper respect, the American offended the host. Teaching local etiquette is a key role of a cultural guide, but this can only happen if their involvement began weeks before the trip.

During my many trips throughout Eastern Europe as part of American official delegations, we would begin our preparations weeks beforehand. As an interpreter, one of my key duties was to prepare a country briefing. This included a short history of the country, a basic familiarization with the language, including key phrases and words. I would follow this with a short lesson on customs and etiquette. One of the lessons I taught included the regimented order of standard toasts in Russia. This had a significant impact on building positive working relations with our hosts. For example, I taught that in military circles, the third toast in Russia is traditionally to the fallen, drunk standing, without clinking glasses. On one multi-site inspection, this third toast fell to my non-Russian speaking team leader. He gave an eloquent tribute to those who had fallen defending both of our homelands, including mention of the Soviet and American soldiers who together defeated fascism. By this simple toast, he earned the enthusiastic esteem of our Russian counterparts. Due to his good relations, he was able to overcome some very thorny issues that arose during the inspection in a very effective and amicable way.

As the above examples show, the insight a cultural guide can provide requires goes beyond linguistic support. Their ability to help avoid missteps and build an affinity with our partners. The cultural literacy the guide provides can pay significant dividends.

As an interpreter, I have supported people from all levels of responsibility from small team leaders to government officials and leaders of national-level NGOs. As I grew in experience, my management responsibilities grew as I managed the interpreters and teams of my own. Regardless of my rank, while serving as the interpreter, my basic duty was to ensure that both sides clearly understood the other. However, early on, I came to understand that my most important role was guiding my team through the intricacies of inter-cultural interaction and ensuring they understood not only the words, but also the unspoken meanings of their partners’ actions and ensure our team’s actions did not convey inappropriate messages.

A cultural guide’s training differs somewhat from a simple interpreter or translator.[1] Whereas many interpreters’ and translators’ skills extend beyond the mechanics of language to include cultural proficiency as well, each individual specialist falls somewhere on the continuum of cultural competency.

Full cultural literacy requires an in-depth understanding of the many factors, which make up the shared understanding and values of a culture. This often requires both formal and informal prolonged exposure to the language and the culture gained from significant time in country and study of its culture, history, art and literature, and philosophies. It is key to understand that language is merely the most basic vehicle by which understanding is shared between people, but it is not the only, and often not the most important one.

To be able to converse at a high or near native level, one needs to understand the unspoken cultural realia that is often interweaved into conversations, especially at a higher intellectual level. A simple phrase can carry meaning understood by natives due to its cultural context. For example, if an American says, “Here’s your sign,” we instantly picture Larry the Cable Guy and understand the implied meaning. No further explanation is necessary. A culturally literate specialist must understand and be able to convey this meaning in both languages.

When looking for an interpreter, it is important that they have the skills, both linguistic and cultural, to give you the support you need. There are some key concepts to keep in mind.

First, you should integrate your cultural guide into your team in the early stages of your preparations. They should be a key part of your planning process. Your guide will understand such vital factors as timelines to expect, the approaches that will be most effective, what would be an appropriate gift, what would be the best hierarchical makeup of your team based on your goals, and many other similar factors that will determine your schedule, scope, and tactics you will employ during your trip. Furthermore, if you visit a certain country regularly, you may want to include a cultural guide as a permanent member of your team.

Second, a cultural study led by your cultural guide should be a key component of your team preparations. This should include a historical synopsis, cultural norms and etiquette, any holidays during your trip, and key words and phrases such as greetings, please, thank you. A study aid or phrase book, including the name and address and phone number of both your host and of your accommodations in the local script to give to a cab driver or law enforcement if the need arises is highly recommended.

Third, your cultural guide should be trusted and confident enough to ask for clarification if something you say or do is unclear or if it may be interpreted negatively. He/she should be comfortable in explaining the possible meaning and consequences of that action or statement and clarify whether that is your intent or not. As with other members of the team, their input should be valued, but a professional interpreter and cultural guide understands that their role is not to lead the team, but to advise and facilitate understanding. Once they are sure the principal understands how the statement will be understood, if they decide to proceed, the interpreter’s role is to convey that meaning – no more, no less.

Fourth, understand that an interpreter/cultural guide interprets meaning, not words. What you say may require expansion or may be conveyed in few words than in your language. It may even not be possible to translate. This is especially true with humor. ALWAYS run jokes by your cultural guide before telling them. Humor often does not translate and puns or plays on words almost never do. Don’t put your interpreter on the spot of the mythical interpreter, whose boss tells a joke that does not translate. The interpreter, in desperation, explains to the audience, “My boss just told a joke that doesn’t translate, but if you don’t laugh, he’ll fire me, so when I say laugh – please laugh.”

Fifth, the cultural guide should not be the team leader. While a team leader well versed in the language and culture is an asset to the team, having another acting as a sounding board and filter is often vital. I have on occasion interpreted for people whose language was on par or better than my own, but wisdom and protocol require an official interpreter.[2] Working through an interpreter has certain benefits in official exchanges. First, if you also speak the language, it gives you a double pass at what your partner is saying and additional time to consider your response. If you do speak the language, I would advise speaking directly with your counterpart, however, during the official portions of the inspection, use your interpreters.

Finally, vet your cultural guide carefully. They will be key in ensuring you and your partner fully understand each other as well as helping you not only avoid the cultural landmines that could scuttle your success. Furthermore, a good cultural guide can also that could give you that added edge.

In our modern, globally connected world, the likelihood we will find ourselves working with people who speak another language and have different cultural norms. Having a well-trained and trustworthy cultural guide to help you navigate the sometimes complicated cultural maze and help you find the common ground where you and your counterparts can take advantage of the strengths each side brings to the table is critical to your success.


[1] Many people use the terms interpreter and translator interchangeably. While many may be able to do both, many professionals focus on one or the other. Translation normally refers to written translation, while interpretation refers to conveying spoken communication in another language.

[2] If you do speak the language, but are working through an interpreter, never publicly criticize or correct your interpreter. You will only discredit him/her and yourself in front of your counterparts.

Stalling the Engine of Success – When Ego Trumps Data

By Ahunt at en.wikipedia [Public domain], from Wikimedia Commons

(Also published on LinkedIn Pulse here)

The phone rings, you pick it up and hear the voice of the company's Chief Operating Officer saying, “Come see me, I need to talk to you immediately.”

You drop what you’re doing and rush down to the boss’s office.

“I’ve got a project for the process improvement team,” he says as soon as you enter his office. “Our operating costs are rising faster than revenues.”

He proceeds to tell you what the problem and solution are, then pats you on the back and says, “Get your process improvement team together and get to work on the solution we talked about.”

While this is not an uncommon approach, this experienced leader is missing some key ingredients for effective process improvement and change management.

Over the years, I have been part of numerous process and quality improvement initiatives. Shepherding one through to successful completion is not easy. In fact, less than 65% of projects succeed, and of those that do, many are significantly over budget and fail to meet projected results.[1] 

A big reason for this is lack of adequate root cause identification, lack of organizational support, and an abundance of organizational resistance. Over the years, I have heard many explanations for individual resistance to change initiatives. The most common points seem to revolve around several main themes:

• “They talk about empowerment but don’t really mean it.  I tried the suggestion system, and no one listened.”
•  “All they want to see is a bunch of pretty charts that don’t really mean anything.  If they want to know what is going on, why don’t they just listen to what we have been telling them?”
•  “They don’t really ever take time to understand our processes and our problems.  They just sit in their office and come up with ideas that do nothing but make our lives harder.”
•  “They’re just changing for change’s sake.” or 
• "If it ain't broke, why are they fixing it?"

My years of training and experience in project management have given me a strong appreciation of the core principles of process improvement, the insights of the “Gemba” (those most directly involved in the processes), and the power of data. Information is the fuel modern, high performing organizations run on and these are its primary sources. Without information, progress stalls and resistance builds. 

However, surprisingly few organizations tap these powerful resources.

Today every desktop and most smartphones have the capabilities and tools to unlock the power of data, which 25 years ago was only accessible to statisticians and supercomputers. Furthermore, the number-crunching abilities of spreadsheets like Microsoft Excel and process improvement suites like Minitab have democratized data analysis and provided much more powerful tools for root cause analysis and problem-solving to anyone willing to spend the time to learn them.

More critically, the institutional knowledge of an organization has always been a largely untapped resource. With information restricted to silos and not generally accessible, organizations are leaving one of the most powerful sources of innovation untapped.

Together, data and the knowledge of the Gemba are powerful resources – if we will only trust what they tell us. In aviation, spatial disorientation is a serious situation and the cause of many accidents. This occurs when the pilot, usually during times of low visibility, loses track of the plane’s position relative to the earth’s surface. This becomes fatal when the pilot trusts on their own instincts and ignores what their instruments are telling them.

Similarly, when leaders ignore the data produced by their operations and the input of those most familiar with the processes, it can lead to serious leadership disorientation resulting in operational and financial inefficiencies and even disaster.

It’s not that intuition and experience are useless, leadership disorientation sets in when instincts and judgment are not validated against the instruments of facts and solid data analysis. In this state, they may miss key indicators that can point out additional or even true root causes. Until root causes are determined, it is impossible to find an effective solution.

No one knows everything, not even the boss. By eliciting input from all stakeholders involved, we learn more about the processes, real root causes, why things are currently done the way they are, issues with the current process, and possible solutions to the problems at hand.

Furthermore, soliciting input from stakeholders is more than data collection. Study after study has shown inclusive change management succeeds far more often than solutions dictated from the on high.[2] An inclusive approach not only addresses the common objections to change listed above, it also increases the pool of experts and points of view, making effective solutions much more likely and organizational buy-in much more probable.

Additionally, while senior leaders do not necessarily need to be Master Black Belts, Scrum Masters, or Project Management Professionals, an understanding of the principles of process improvement, project, and change management is essential. Project managers should take the lead in helping them understand basic principles and their roles in these processes. They should teach them that while an engaged and unified leadership approach is key to a project’s success, micromanagement and intellectual arrogance may muddy the waters and lead to missed cues and inadequate solutions.

Leaders, on the other hand, must understand the contribution accurate data analysis and subject matter experts play in identifying root causes and enhancing their ability to formulate solutions to address them. While gut instinct, education, and experience are key in reading the situation and input to root cause analysis, leaders who champion transparency during change, trust and truly empower their people, and build open communication channels will find their understanding of organizational processes, problems, and solutions increase. Having the objective data that not only confirms their initial understanding of the situation but also taking into account information, which contradicts it improves the quality of their decisions and may even prevent grave mistakes.

Finally, while traditional incentives play a part in motivation, most workers want to feel valued and want the company to succeed. When they feel their opinions are valued, even if they are not always accepted, they will feel they have a stake in the organization’s success and will be the eyes and ears on the ground the leadership needs to make the best possible decisions. However, they can only do this if they are comfortable in sharing the insights and expertise you may lack and providing the solutions you may have never considered.

While the leader always maintains accountability and is often the only person in the organization that sees the entire picture, letting go of their ego and being willing to “trust the instruments” and facilitate open and transparent communication throughout the organization will improve the quality and organizational acceptance of their decisions. Employees will understand the rationale and feel invested in the decisions.

Data, whether from processes or from people is the fuel that high performing organizations run on. Don’t let your ego clog the lines and stall the engine of progress.

[1] International Project Leadership Academy. Facts and Figures. 2016. 12 January 2016. <http://calleam.com/WTPF/?page_id=1445>.
[2] A few examples are:

•      International Project Leadership Academy. Facts and Figures. 2016. 12 January 2016. <http://calleam.com/WTPF/?page_id=1445>.
•      Lines, R. (2004). Influence of participation in strategic change: Resistance, organizational commitment and change goal achievement. Journal of change Management, 4, 193-115. 
•      Mirvis, P. H., Sales, A. L., & HackeR, E. J. (1991). The implementation and adoption of new technology in organizations: The impact on work, people, and culture. Human Resource Management, 30, 113-139. 
•      Ferguson, E., & Cheyne, A. (1995). Organizational change: Main and interactive effects. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 68, 101-107.Reichers, A. E. (1986). Conflict and organizational commitments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 508-514. 
•      Reichers, A. E., Wanous, J. P., & Austin, J. T. (1997). Understanding and managing cynicism about organizational change. The Academy of Management Executive, 11, 4859.          

Who's Guarding the Flock? Higher Islamic Education in Russia

“I…feel that a priority in the activities of Islamic organizations themselves should be placed on the positive image of traditional Islam as an important spiritual component in the common identity of the peoples of the Russian Federation…this significantly impacts the nurturing of our youth. This is extremely important for young Muslims, who have, unfortunately, become the target audience of those who wish us harm.”[1]

One of the most important functions of any church or religion is the education of its clergy. An educated clergy preserves not only the traditions, beliefs, and ordinances of a religion; it also protects it against radicalism.

Islam’s history in Russia has ancient roots. The first Islamic missionaries arrived in the seventh century and three hundred years later, around the Tenth Century, the Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state. Then, in the Thirteenth Century, the Mongol Golden Horde conquered Kievian Rus’. This occurred at about the same time that the Mongols began converting to Islam and Berke became the first Islamic Khan. From this time onward, the Islamic presence on modern-day Russian territory expanded under Mongol rule.

In the Sixteenth Century, the Russian Empire began the conquest of Muslim lands in the Northern Caucasus, along the Volga River, and eastward. Russian Islam dates from this period. Widespread state repression characterized the first years of Russian rule over Muslims. However, in order to strengthen her hand against the Ottomans, Catherine the Great revoked restrictions on building stone mosques and other public Islamic buildings in 1767 and issued the decree entitled On the Tolerance of All Religious Confessions in 1773. This gave Muslims freedom of worship, officially making Russia a multi-confessional state.

At the time of the 1918 Revolution, thousands of madrassas and other Islamic centers of learning dotted the Russian Empire.  In the city of Orenburg alone, there were two specialized secondary theological madrassas, 122 regular madrassas, and 222 maktabs (Islamic elementary schools).[1]  The city encompassed a vibrant Islamic community, supported by a cadre of educated imams and other religious personnel.

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[1] The Slavic Legal Center. “The Repressed Madrassa: Interview with Ismail-Khazarat Shangareev, the Mufti of the Orenburg Oblast.” (Славянский правовой центр. Репрессированное медресе. Интервью с Исмагил-хазратом Шангареевым, муфтием Оренбургской области). Issue 1-2 (39) 2006.  Accessed 11 August 2014. In Russian. <http://www.sclj.ru/analytics/magazine/arch/detail.php?ELEMENT_ID=1265>.  Translation by author.

[1] Putin, Vladimir Vladimirovich. Official Page of the President of the President of Russia (Официальная страница Президента России). Opening Address of the Meeting with the Muftis of the Spiritual Confessions of the Muslims of Russia (Начало встречи с муфтиями духовных управлений мусульман России). 22 October 2013. Accessed 10 August 2014 <http://www.kremlin.ru/transcripts/19474>. Translation by author.